Month: January 2021

On January 8, 1815, a rag-tag collection of U.S. soldiers, marines, militia, merchants and business men and a contingent of pirates defeated a superior British army in a most lop-sided fashion at the battle of New Orleans bolstering national pride, preserving the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the young republic and thrusting Andrew Jackson into national prominence. The unfortunate tragedy was that the battle occurred eighteen days after American and British negotiators signed a peace treaty in Belgium ending the War of 1812 but word had not yet reached North America.  The battle, however, was more than just a pointless coda or epilogue to an unpopular war. It served to shape the future course of American history. If the British had won the battle and occupied New Orleans, it is likely they would have abrogated the treaty and insisted on territorial concessions from the Louisiana territory, stymying American expansion westward. The victory also shaped how America viewed the war and itself. It allowed the young nation to forget how close it came to military defeat, financial bankruptcy, and dissolution of the union, instead ushering in a period of optimism, national unity, institution building and internal improvements aimed at fostering increased trade and economic prosperity.

The United States declared war against Great Britain in June of 1812 but the British, for the most part, approached the unwanted conflict with a mix of patience and restraint, devoting most of their attention and resources to the struggle against Napoleonic France. The defeat of Napoleon in the Spring of 1814, however, allowed the British to refocus much of their effort on their American foe. That summer, a British army of 7,500 battle-tested veterans under General Robert Ross arrived in the Chesapeake Bay threatening both Washington and Baltimore. In August, the British routed a hastily assembled American force at the Battle of Bladensburg and that same night proceeded to burn Washington DC. Two weeks later, the British carried out a combined land and naval attack on Baltimore but were repulsed at Fort Mc Henry and forced to retreat.

As the British troops departed the Chesapeake Bay, there was a great deal of uncertainty on both sides about what would happen next. Peace talks had begun in Belgium in August and the British had hoped that that the burning of Washington and the capture of Baltimore would force the Americans to sue for peace on terms favorable to Great Britain. However things did not go as planned. There was also growing pressure in London to end the war as soon as possible because of the financial strain that decades of continuing conflicts were placing on the British treasury. Despite this pressure, British war hawks decided to look South. Unable to capture Baltimore, they would attack the city of New Orleans. Situated on the Mississippi River, New Orleans was the crown jewel of the Louisiana purchase in 1803 and a prosperous port. If Great Britain could seize New Orleans it would gain control over the Mississippi river and much of the trade that depended on it. It would also give the British strong leverage to press the Americans to hand over the Louisiana territory as part of any peace treaty.

Almost three months after their defeat at Baltimore, a fleet of sixty British warships carrying almost 15,000 soldiers, sailors and marines arrived some 60 miles east of New Orleans, on December 8. Word of the fleet’s arrival confirmed what American planners had been anticipating since at least mid-November. Secretary of War James Monroe put Major General Andrew Jackson in charge of organizing New Orleans’ defenses. Jackson was a controversial and somewhat divisive figure. Know as “Old Hickory” because of his toughness and determination, he was also rash and quick tempered, which earned him both friends and foe alike. Moreover, his friendship with Aaron Burr, who was tried and acquitted of treason in 1807, did not endear him to the Madison Administration. Nonetheless, Jackson had proven himself an effective and more than capable military leader at a time where others were failing quite miserably. He spent much of the previous year battling a hostile faction of the Creek Indians, allied to the British, called the “Red Sticks” and harassing British operations along the Gulf Coast. Jackson eventually defeated the Red Sticks, forcing the Creeks to cede 23 million acres to the young republic while driving the British from Pensacola in Spanish controlled Florida.

Upon arriving in New Orleans, Jackson soon began to familiarize himself with the local terrain and to assemble an army to defend against the impending British attack. He declared martial law, which was extremely unpopular with the public, and ordered every available weapon and able-bodied man around to come to the defense of the city. His force grew into a 4,500-strong patchwork of army regulars, Tennessee and Kentucky militiamen, free blacks, New Orleans aristocrats and Choctaw tribesmen. After some hesitation, he even accepted help from Jean Lafitte and his band of pirates who would provide much needed supplies and critical skills that would be crucial to the outcome of the battle.

Although the appearance of the British fleet was a clear signal that they were intent on attacking New Orleans, there was still a great deal of ambiguity as to which direction the attack would come. Jackson thought the attack would most likely come overland from the North where there would be fewer geographical and logistical challenges. However, in an effort to maintain some element of surprise, the British decided to attack from the south, despite the more difficult terrain. On the morning of December 23, British infantry landed just below New Orleans and began to move north through nearby bayous and swamps toward the city.

As American scouts learned of the British movements, they quickly sent word back to Jackson that a British advance guard of over 2,000 troops was less than 10 miles from the city. Jackson, however, wasn’t sure that these movements weren’t anything more than a feint. Nonetheless, in his typical fashion, he made a decisive decision. Turning to his aides Jackson declared, “Gentlemen, the British are below and we must fight them tonight.” Jackson quickly assembled 2,100 of his men and moved out to meet the British threat, vowing that no British soldier would enter the city unless it was over his dead body.

That evening Jackson and his troops struck the unsuspecting British in a brutal but inconclusive attack that would become known as “The Night Battle.” Scores of vicious little firefights, many hand to hand, erupted all across the field in the pitch black night while a slow moving fog rolled in further hampering command and control. The attack would last more than four hours with Jackson’s motley band giving the British veterans all they could handle. One British lieutenant later wrote, “We fought with the savage ferocity of bull-dogs.” With his men exhausted and running low on ammunition, Jackson called off the attack around midnight and ordered his troops to fall back two miles north to the Rodriguez Canal located near Chalmette Plantation along the Mississippi River. American casualties totaled 24 killed, 115 wounded, and 74 missing, while the British reported their losses as 46 killed, 167 wounded, and 64 missing. Amongst the hardest hit of the American units was a rifle company composed primarily of New Orleans lawyers and merchants.

The outcome of the Night Battle was inconclusive but it had visibly shaken the British. British commander Major General John Keane abandoned his plan to attack New Orleans the following day. Jackson must have gathered a formidable army with large reserves, otherwise he never would have carried out such a reckless nighttime attack, Keane surmised.

Conversely, Jackson considered renewing the attack the next day. However, after learning that the British were being reinforced and digging in, he opted to improve his defenses instead. Employing slave labor, he turned the Rodriguez canal into defensive trench and built a seven foot tall line of breastworks consisting of earthen ramparts reinforced by timber and large cotton bales covered in mud. Behind these ramparts, Jackson deployed his artillery. These fortifications were christened “Line Jackson” and a posed a formidable defense, stretching three-quarters of a mile from the east bank of the Mississippi River to a large Cyprus swamp. Jackson also began to build defensive positions on the west bank of the Mississippi River to guard against a British flanking maneuver. Here the Americans would make their stand.

Christmas day brought a shake up in the British high command. Major General Edward Pakenham, brother-in-law to the Duke of Wellington, arrived to take command of the British army from General Keane. Pakenham distinguished himself fighting against Napoleon in the Peninsular campaign and was well respected among ranks. He really wasn’t interested in serving in the American war, but in October 1814 was selected to take command of the army following the death of its original commander, Major-General Robert Ross, near Baltimore. Pakenham had hoped to rendezvous with the fleet before the army went ashore but adverse winds delayed his arrival till mid-December.

Upon his arrival, Pakenham immediately was disturbed by what he found. Keane’s failure to advance left the British Army trapped on a three-quarters of a mile wide isthmus, wedged between the Mississippi on its left and and a virtually impassable swamp on the right. These geographical obstacles limited the army’s maneuvering room and made it more vulnerable to American artillery and rifle fire. By this time, the campaign advanced so far on both sides that there was little Pakenham could do in terms of changing strategy, naval and army placements. Nevertheless, Pakenham’s concerns, were counterbalanced by his low opinion of Jackson’s men, whom he derisively referred to as “dirty shirts,” and his unwavering confidence that they would crumble before the might of British regulars.

Pakenham moved the entire 8,000 man British Army forward to the Chalmette Plantation on December 27 and over the next several days carried out a number of probing attacks that were beaten back. Penned in by geographical obstacles and left with few other options, Pakenham began planning for a direct assault on the American line. He would cross the Mississippi River downstream with a strong force and overwhelm Jackson’s thin line of defenders on the river bank opposite the Rodriguez Canal. From there, these troops would open an enfilading fire on Jackson’s line with the captured artillery. Meanwhile, several columns of heavy infantry would conduct a frontal assault seeking to punch a hole in Jackson’s line. Conceptually, it was a reasonably thought out plan. However, like most plans the devil was in the execution.

The British launched their attack just before sunrise on January 8 but things began to go awry from the outset. Over night, the navy was able to transfer only half of the appropriated 1400 troops across the river because of unexpected difficulties. Moreover, the forces that did reach the other side were significantly behind schedule after landing further down river because of strong currents. At daybreak they were still four miles from their objective which should have already been taken. Pakenham patiently waited for sounds of battle from across the river but none were forthcoming. Further complicating matters on the other side, the ladders and fascines needed to scale the American fortifications had been misplaced. Around 4 o’clock the British commander told an aide, “I will wait my plans no longer.” With daybreak quickly approaching, Pakenham issued orders to begin the assault.

The British plan was to send two columns against the Jackson’s position. The left column, the Third Brigade, led by British Major General John Keane, included elements of the 95th Rifles, the 7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers), the 93rd Foot (Sutherland Highlanders), and the 1st West India Regiment. Keane’s brigade was to play a largely diversionary role, attacking along the extreme right of the American position. It was hoped that the column’s advance along the river bank would protect it from the Americans’ artillery and rifle fire until they could get close enough to charge the enemy works. The main attack was targeted against the American center-left at the far eastern portion of the field near the edge of the cypress swamp. This column, the 2nd Brigade, was led by General Samuel Gibbs, Pakenham’s deputy and included the 44th Regiment of Foot (East Essex), the 4th Foot (King’s Own), and the 21st Foot (Royal Scots Fusiliers). Light troops, including units of the 95th Foot (Rifles) advanced through the swamp itself to protect the right flank of the main attack. The 44th Regiment was to lead the column, carrying ladders and fascines to bridge the canal and scale the rampart. A third brigade, commanded by General John Lambert, constituted a reserve.

A single Congreve rocket signaled the beginning of the attack and the British troops stepped forward toward the American line with resolve and determination. These were veteran soldiers, the best of the best, who fought all across Europe and defeated Napoleon. Nevertheless there was a grim resignation about them, that in storming the American fortifications, many were unlikely to survive the day. Colonel Robert Dale, commander of the famed 93rd Highlander regiment, reportedly gave his watch and a letter to the regimental physician. “Give these to my wife,” he somberly declared, “I shall die at the head of my regiment.”

Initially, the British advance was hidden by the early morning darkness and a dense fog. Nevertheless, Jackson and his men knew the British were coming. They loaded their artillery and muskets and patiently waited secure behind their protective wall. As the sun began to rise and the fog burned away, American artillery and riflemen now had clear sight lines of the entire landscape in front of them. American artillery, especially the batteries manned by Lafite’s pirates, were deadly accurate, cutting gaping holes in the British formation, sending both men and materials flying in the air. As the British continued to draw closer, their ranks were cut down by musket fire.

The main British thrust on the right was struggling against the entrenched Americans. Gibbs’ brigade was being decimated by the Kentucky and Tennessee militia who were deadly accurate with their muskets. Three to four deep behind their protective wall, the Americans were able to keep up a constant and withering fire, largely shielded from British muskets and artillery. One surviving British officer later claimed that the American line looked like a row of fiery furnaces. Approaching the canal, the attack began to falter. The 21st and 44th regiments were disintegrating rapidly under a hail of grapeshot and musket fire. Gibbs tried to rally his troops but without the necessary ladders and fascines, the remaining forces started to fall back in panic. He later would fall mortally wounded, pierced by four musket balls, about 20 yards from the wall.

With the attack on the right quickly collapsing, Pakenham ordered Keane to send the famed 93rd Highlanders to come to the aid of Gibbs’ brigade. Led by Keane himself, the 900 man tartan clad regiment marched diagonally across the field coming under a storm of musket and artillery fire. The Highlanders took gruesome losses as they struggled across the muddy open field. Their commander, Colonel Robert Dale fell dead as he predicted. His body riddled by grapeshot. After making contact with the remainder of Gibbs’ brigade, Keane also fell seriously wounded. He was shot through the neck and groin, and had to be taken from the field. About a 100 yards out from the American fortifications the regiment paused confused. Leaderless and with its ranks significantly diminished, the regiment was uncertain as whether to press on or fall back.

Watching Gibbs’ brigade disintegrate and the Highlanders wavering under the deadly American fire, Pakenham rode forward to try and rally his men. “Shame! Shame!” the general called out to his fleeing soldiers. “Recollect that you are British soldiers. Forward gentlemen, forward,” he shouted. Suddenly, a burst of grapeshot shattered his left knee and killed the horse from under him. Struggling to his feet, Pakenham was wounded a second time in his right arm before more grapeshot tore through his spine. As he was carried from the field, Pakenham’s last words before he died reportedly were to order Lambert’s reserves forward.

British forces enjoyed more success on their left where a battalion of light infantry captured an under strength redoubt at the extreme right of the American line. However they proved unable to hold their prize. Driving out the defenders in ferocious hand to hand combat, the battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rennie climbed to the top of the redoubt and shouted, “The enemy’s works are ours!” Within minutes Rennie was struck dead by a musket ball as the 7th U.S. Infantry counter attacked and drove the few remaining British forces back across the field.

Across the river, British Colonel William Thornton and his 700 troops who were supposed to begin their attack much earlier were finally engaging the Americans. Thornton’s men first encountered an advanced American outpost manned by about 200 hungry and poorly armed Kentucky militia who put up little resistance and fled. Pressing forward, the British approached the main American defensive line about a mile up river. The American defenses on this side of the river were far less formidable than the other side, consisting of only a waist high dirt wall and a shallow ditch. There were also far fewer defenders to man the entire line resulting in gaps between the various units. Thornton organized his troops and stormed the American line causing panic and confusion and sending the American forces, scurrying in retreat. The British captured 12 cannons but luckily they were spiked before they could be turned on Jackson’s men across the river. Nevertheless, Thornton’s success proved too little too late to prevent the slaughter on the opposite bank.

With Pakenham dead, and both Generals Gibbs and Keane gravely wounded, command of the British Army passed to Major General John Lambert. Lambert and his brigade of reserves moved forward to assess the rapidly deteriorating situation. Lambert, examining the carnage across the field determined the situation was unsalvageable. Of the three thousand troops in the main British advance, two-thirds lay dead or dying on the field. Lambert ordered the remaining British forces to fall back and advanced his brigade to cover their retreat. The battle was over. The British army lingered in Louisiana for the next several days, but its remaining officers knew that any chance of taking the New Orleans had passed. After an abortive naval attack on nearby Fort St. Philip, the British boarded their ships and sailed back into the Gulf of Mexico.

The battle of New Orleans is remarkable for both its brevity and its casualties. In little over 30 minutes, the British lost 285 killed and 1265 wounded. In addition, 484 were taken prisoner. Many of whom pretended to be dead, surrendering once the shooting stopped. Of the wounded, at least half were “permanently disabled” which meant the the loss of a limb. American losses were minuscule in comparison. Jackson’s men, behind their protective wall, had lost only 13 men killed, 30 wounded, and 19 missing or captured. Future President James Monroe would later praise Jackson by saying, “History records no example of so glorious a victory obtained with so little bloodshed on the part of the victorious.”